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Summary
Modern Indian History Class 26

Formation of Indian National Congress(INC) (5:01 PM)

  • Safety Valve Theory(SVT) held that AO Hume and Dufferin(1884-1888) set up INC with moderates, to diffuse tensions. Therefore, preventing 1857 like revolt.
  • The origin of SVT traces back to the biography of AO Hume, by Wedderburn
  • Why SVT Falls:
  • 1. seven volumes of secret reports from Sadhus to Hume were never found.
  • Also, Dufferin never took Hume seriously. In addition to that, he hated moderates and didn't consider them mass leaders.
  • He didn't like INC formation, as he feared the Irish-like Home Rule Movement by INC.
  • 2. We were on the path to setting up an India Organization- Pre-INC political activities were on the rise, plus even British Indian Association, 1851 tried opening branches in Bombay and Madras.
  • Also, the Native Press Association set up with Surendranath Banerjee(SNB) as President in 1877 Imperial Durbar, was All India Organization, which decided to meet annually
  • Plus SNB's Indian Association 1876, held a national conference in 1883 in Calcutta, another to be held in 1885
  • National Fund was set up in 1885 for an election campaign in favour of liberal candidates, fighting British parliamentary elections.
  • 3. Even if Hume and Dufferin wanted to use the INC as a safety valve, moderates used Hume as a lightning conductor.
  • As purely an All India and all India organization, won't have been allowed by the British.
  • Also, Hume overcame differences among regional leaders.
  • 4. In the Biography, Wedderburn wrote so, because he wanted Hume to be viewed as Patriot in Britain. Also, Hume wanted strong opposition in India, as he was a liberal

Moderates (5:47 PM)

  • Ideology of Moderates
  • First, the twenty years of INC was the moderate phase of the Indian National Movement
  • Moderates believed in constitutionalism(* that is a strong and good state, that provides a mechanism for grievance redressal). 
  • They knew that British rule was exploitative but believed it can modernize India if the British pressurized.
  • They believed in the providence (*goodness) of British Rule.
  • Moderates didn't believe that Indians were ready for self-rule.
  • Therefore, their goal was limited self-government to Indians, within the British empire. They never even thought about full independence.
  • They were secular and believed in western capitalism.
  • They believed western capitalism will modernize India, and believed in national unity.

Swaraj(5:55 PM)

  • the First concept of swaraj indicates the control of Indians over the state. This includes Limited self-government and self-government
  • Limited self-government means a partnership between Indians and Britishers over control of the State
  • Limited self-government was the goal of moderates. Self-government within the British was the goal of extremists. 
  • Poorna Swaraj was the goal of young INC leaders in the 1920s, like Bose, Nehru, Patel, etc.
  • Therefore, extremists had faith in Indians, while moderates didn't believe that Indians were ready for self-rule.
  • This was endorsed as many believed that Indians were not ready to rule India.
  • Self-government further can mean either Self-government within the British Government and Full self-government (Poorna Swaraj)
  • Self-government within the British Government means Dominion Status.
  • Dominion Status means maximum control that can be given without the colony leaving the country.
  • Dominion status is similar to the Subsidiary alliance with the British. Defence, Foreign affairs, and communication with the British rest with the Indians.
  • the Second concept of swaraj indicates the rule of each Indian, which means a stateless society
  • Gandhiji wanted enlightened anarchism. He wanted not law but religion as a source of morality.
  • He wanted a positive role of religion, in governance.

Indian Council Act, 1861(6:43PM)

  • Moderate demand was to amend the Indian Council Act, of 1861, (to give limited self-government)
  • Reason for ICA, 1861
  • Post-1857 British wanted the support of Indian Rajas and Zamindars
  • Provisions
  • Viceroy's council converted into ILC- Imperial Legislative council and VEC- Viceroy's Executive Council/Imperial Executive Council
  • The separate legislature and Executive bodies, both were under Viceroy, therefore was no Separation of power at the level of the Viceroy
  • PLC-Provincial Legislative Councils and Governor's Executive Council in Provinces
  • Therefore, ILC and PLC were established by the Indian council act, of 1861
  • Viceroy could Nominate 6-12 law members to ILC of which, at least half must be non-officials.
  • Therefore, First time Indians could be included in law-making.
  • Indian Council act, therefore introduced a grain of popular(Indian) elements. It was the first attempt at the representative character of governance as some Indians first time could be nominated to the legislative branch of the state.
  • In 1862, three Indians were nominated to ILC- Maharaja of Patiala, Raja of Benaras, and Sir Dinkar Rao (All Elites).
  • Until 1892, mostly Zamindar and money lenders from British Indian Association were nominated along with British businessmen
  • overall, 45 Indians were nominated from 1861-92.
  • No discussion by ILC without prior approval of the viceroy
  • No discussion of the action of the administration
  • Prior approval of the viceroy for the introduction of bills.
  • Viceroy had veto powers over bills.
  • Therefore ILC of the Indian Council Act, of 1861 was not a parliament( No control over the executive).
  • (Later link powers of Duma after October manifesto, 1905, after Russian Revolution 1905)
  • Executive:
  • 1. Portfolio system of 1859, legally recognized i.e. Allocation of departments to members/ministers of VEC.
  • The final decision over that department to be of this minister 
  • 2. Power of Lawmaking by Ordinance through viceroy in special circumstances (Life of six months).
  • The ordinance is the lawmaking power given to the executive in case of urgency when the legislature is not in session.
  • 3. Viceroy got the power to create new provinces and appoint Lieutenant Governor(LG).
  • ICA 1861 began decentralization between the centre and provinces
  • Centralization began with Regulating Act of 1773, plus peaked in 1833.
  • ICA, 1861 restored legislative powers of Bombay and Madras, and other provinces
  • It ensured the movement of power from the Viceroy to the Governor. The journey of Federalism (* Federalism means more power to states) began.
  • The new legislative council was proposed in Bengal, North-west frontier Province(NFP), and Punjab.
  • (After the charter act 1853, Dalhousie created the post of LG of Bengal to decrease his burden as ruler of British India as well as Bengal)
  • Power to viceroy to frame rules and orders for the conduct of business in all councils (ILC and PLCs)
  • In provinces, provisions similar to ILC, and non-official members in PLC's to be appointed by Viceroy only
  • Prior approval of the viceroy is needed for the introduction of some bills in PLCs  
  • PLCs did not have separate budget-making powers

Legislatures (7:01 PM)

  • It can consist of officials and non-officials.
  • Non-official members can be either nominated or elected. 
  • Nonofficial members can be Indians or Britishers.
  • Elected members can be directly or indirectly elected.

Demands of Moderates (7:33 PM)

  • Increased size of ILC and PLC
  • Bring the elected majority (and not the direct majority)
  • Greater powers to ILC and PLCs
  • Indianization of services
  • Decrease military expenditure.
  • Also share expenditure between India and Britain, as the army was used not just for the protection of India, but also the rest of the British empire.
  • Have a volunteer army i.e. allow all Indians to apply and join
  • Trial by jury
  • Remove Arms Act 1878
  • Decrease land revenue
  • Extend permanent settlement 1793 to areas outside Bengal as in it, Land revenue cannot be increased.
  • End salt tax( *Link Civil Disobedience Movement of Mahatma Gandhi)
  • End exploitation of indentured labourers (*contractual labourers of Assam tea garden)(* link Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa)
  • Abolish India council ( so that the Secretary of State for India can function freely)
  • Result
  • None of the demands of the Moderates was met.
  • Weaknesses of Moderates(7:49 PM)
  • 1. Uneven representation and total exclusion of non-elites, therefore their claim of representing India was weak.
  • INC was mainly dominated by upper castes, Hindus, middle class, men, Bengalis, Marathi, and Tamilians. Therefore, not truly representative
  • 2. Due to their social background, they didn't take up anti-zamindar issues and were pro-capitalist, this hurt their support base
  • 3. They had a limited goal of limited self-government. Therefore, didn't want the end of British Rule, as they believed that British rule will modernize India.
  • 4. They didn't believe that Indians are ready for self-government (because of the low spread of western education)
  • 5. Even their ultimate long-term goal was dominion status i.e. self-government on the lines of Canada and Australia, and full British citizenship
  • 6. Had moderate methods of sending petitions, passing resolutions, writing articles, and making speeches and council work, that didn't create enough pressure on Britishers
  • 7. They developed a rich culture of debate but no focus on mass struggle. That is no focus on involving the common man.
  • 8. In 1886 under Dadabhai Naoroji, INC decided to not take up social issues like casteism, communalism, or peasant and working-class interest. 
  • They thought it might hurt unity among Indians.
  • 9. They wanted gradual reforms, not radical reforms.
  • 10. They were part-time politicians and most of them had lucrative legal practices and other professions
  • 11. INC was not a party but a three-day annual function without any organizational structure at the provincial and local levels
  • Overall they had mild goals and mild methods and extremist criticized their methods as a policy of Mendicancy/ begging.
  • Their constitutional agitation didn't create any pressure, and no demand of theirs was met.

The topic of the Next class: Positives of the Moderates